Phosphodiesterases are enzymes that catalyse the hydrolysis of cyclic AMP and/or cyclic GMP in cells to 5-AMP and 5-GMP, respectively, and as such they are critical to cellular regulation of cAMP or cGMP levels. Of the 11 phosphodiesterases identified so far, phosphodiesterase (PDE) 4, PDE7 and PDE8 are selective for cAMP. PDE4 is the most important modulator of cAMP expressed in immune and inflammatory cells such as neutrophils, macrophages and T-lymphocytes (Z. Huang and J. A. Mancini, Current Med. Chem. 13, 2006, pp. 3253-3262). As cAMP is a key second messenger in the modulation of inflammatory responses, PDE4 has been found to regulate inflammatory responses of inflammatory cells by modulating proinflammatory cytokines such as TNFα, IL-2, IFN-γ, GM-CSF and LTB4. Inhibition of PDE4 has therefore become an attractive target for the therapy of inflammatory diseases such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), rheumatoid arthritis, atopic dermatitis, Crohn's disease etc. (M. D. Houslay et al., Drug Discovery Today 10 (22), 2005, pp. 1503-1519). As atopic dermatitis (AD) patients have increased PDE-activity, PDE4-inhibition would also appear to be a viable treatment of AD (Journal of Investigative Dermatology (1986), 87(3), 372-6).
The PDE4 gene family consists at least of four genes, A, B, C and D, which have a high degree of homology (V. Boswell Smith and D. Spina, Curr. Opinion Investig. Drugs 6(11), 2006, pp. 1136-1141). The four PDE4 isoforms are differentially expressed in different tissues and cell types. Thus, PDE4B is predominantly expressed in monocytes and neutrophils, but not in cortex and epithelial cells, while PDE4D is expressed in lung, cortex, cerebellum and T-cells (C. Kroegel and M. Foerster, Exp. Opinion Investig. Drugs 16(1), 2007, pp. 109-124). It has been speculated that inhibition of PDE4D in the brain is associated with the adverse effects found when administering PDE4 inhibitors clinically, primarily nausea and emesis, whereas inhibition of PDE4B is associated with anti-inflammatory effects (B. Lipworth, Lancet 365, 2005, pp. 167-175). However, the PDE inhibitors developed so far are not believed to be specific for any of the four PDE4 isoforms.
Numerous PDE4 inhibitors have been studied for their therapeutic effect on inflammatory diseases, primarily asthma, inflammatory bowel disease and COPD. The first of these, theophylline, is a weak, non-selective phosphodiesterase inhibitor used in the treatment of respiratory diseases such as asthma and COPD. Treatment with theophylline may, however, give rise to both mild and severe adverse effects, e.g. arrhythmia and convulsions, restricting the clinical utility of theophylline (Kroegel and Foerster, supra). As phosphodiesterase has remained an attractive target for anti-inflammatory therapy, several other, more selective PDE4 inhibitors have been developed and investigated in a clinical setting. The clinical development of many of the first-generation PDE4 inhibitors such as rolipram was discontinued due to dose-limiting side effects, primarily nausea and emesis. Second-generation PDE4 inhibitors with apparently less pronounced adverse effects are currently in clinical trials (Houslay, supra).
Recently developed PDE-4 inhibitors are for example disclosed in EP 0771794 and EP 0943613. WO 96/31476 discloses structurally different 4-substituted-3,5-dichloropyridines which are inhibitors of cyclic AMP phosphodiesterase.
There is a continued need for developing novel PDE4 inhibitors which have a more favourable therapeutic window, i.e. fewer adverse effects, while retaining their therapeutic anti-inflammatory effect. An overview of preclinical and clinical trials with selective PDE4 inhibitors, including such inhibitors aimed for the treatment of atopic dermatitis and psoriasis, was recently given in Inflammation & Allergy: Drug Targets, 2007, 6(1), 17-26.